The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne
Intro (YouTube Video)
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The Plot (You Tube Video)
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Comments on the Novel...
Although commonly called a novel, The Scarlet Letter is actually a romance. Hawthorne makes this distinction because at the time he was writing, novels were supposed to deal with realistic representations of human experiences or external truths. Romances, on the other hand, were concerned with internal truths, or “truths of the human heart,” as Hawthorne states in his Preface to The House of the Seven Gables. Romances, therefore, allowed the author to deviate from reality in favor of imagination. Thus The Scarlet Letter is not an historical novel about Puritan Boston, but a romance set 200 years before Hawthorne’s time in which he tells a tale that may have occurred, given some historical facts and many insights into human nature.
Writing a romance about the past gives Hawthorne the freedom to present several versions of what might have happened, depending on whose perspective is presented. This is why after the death of Arthur Dimmesdale, several theories are submitted as to how the scarlet “A” came to be imprinted on his breast. The insignia could have been self-inflicted, or wrought by Chillingworth’s magic, or a manifestation of Dimmesdale’s remorseful spirit. Hawthorne presents all three theories non-judgementally because what matters most is not how the scarlet letter got there, but that it confirms the truth about Dimmesdale’s adulterous heart.
The genre of the romance also allowed Hawthorne to embellish the relationship between humans and nature. For example, the babbling brook in the forest scene appears to sympathize with Hester and Dimmesdale and adds “this other tale to the mystery with which its little heart was already overburdened....” (p. 201). In addition, the “A”-shaped meteor which appears the night Governor Winthrop dies and Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold is interpreted as both a sign from heaven denouncing Dimmesdale as an adulterer and also as standing for “Angel” as the soul of a revered magistrate ascends into heaven, depending upon the orientation of its observer.
Writing a romance about the past gives Hawthorne the freedom to present several versions of what might have happened, depending on whose perspective is presented. This is why after the death of Arthur Dimmesdale, several theories are submitted as to how the scarlet “A” came to be imprinted on his breast. The insignia could have been self-inflicted, or wrought by Chillingworth’s magic, or a manifestation of Dimmesdale’s remorseful spirit. Hawthorne presents all three theories non-judgementally because what matters most is not how the scarlet letter got there, but that it confirms the truth about Dimmesdale’s adulterous heart.
The genre of the romance also allowed Hawthorne to embellish the relationship between humans and nature. For example, the babbling brook in the forest scene appears to sympathize with Hester and Dimmesdale and adds “this other tale to the mystery with which its little heart was already overburdened....” (p. 201). In addition, the “A”-shaped meteor which appears the night Governor Winthrop dies and Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold is interpreted as both a sign from heaven denouncing Dimmesdale as an adulterer and also as standing for “Angel” as the soul of a revered magistrate ascends into heaven, depending upon the orientation of its observer.
Do I Define ME? Or Do I Let Others Define me? (YouTube Video)
ThemesMany of Hawthorne's ideas explored in The Scarlet Letter are still relevant today and frequently occur in other literary works. Here are a few examples of thematic content within the novel:
Theme #1 – Strength vs. Weakness. Perhaps the greatest message in the novel is shown in the characters of Hester and Dimmsdale. Hawthorne makes it clear (in all of his works) that sin, and therefore pain, is a part of what it means to be human. Despite any hardship, shame, pain we may face in our lives, there is always hope. However, hope can only be achieved through strength. Hester accepts those obstacles placed in her way. While she has moments of doubts and at times harbors a desire to set aside her burden (considers leaving Boston for example), she always lives up to her responsibility. Only for a moment does she cast aside her punishment – when she agrees to run away with Dimmsdale, throwing off the scarlet letter – she does not continue through with the action. She takes back up her letter and in doing so takes back the burden that belongs to her. Her acceptance of the shame and isolation only strengthens her further. The result of this is a life that is remarkable. She lives up to every Puritan ideal and soon becomes the ―mascot‖ of Boston, as everyone is amazed by her ability. In addition, her mind grows as well, finding new ways of thinking. Dimmsdale provides a contrast. At not time is he strong. He hides from his guilt and shame, fearing more the judgment of man. He continuously bemoans his lot in life and how difficult it is to suffer alone, and even ―begs‖ to have his secret revealed, as long as it isn‘t by him. Though, near the end, when the revelation of his secret sin is a real possibility, he panics – clearly showing us that he never intended to face judgment while still on earth. His peak of cowardice comes when he begs Hester in the forest to take up his burden of guilt and shame for him. Even in the end, when he confesses, his strength is borne more from fear of divine judgment and out of a sense of escape from earthly judgment, since he knew he was dying. Hawthorne shows us two ways we can face adversity, pain and guilt: be strong (face it and accept responsibility) or run from it (vainly trying to hide or put our responsibility on others). Through strength we grow and can be elevated, while through cowardice we are destroyed. Theme #2 – Sin, Knowledge and the Human Condition. Sin and knowledge are linked in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve, who were expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. As a result of their knowledge, Adam and Eve are made aware of their humanness, that which separates them from the divine and from other creatures. Once expelled from the Garden of Eden, they are forced to toil and to procreate — two ―labors‖ that seem to define the human condition. The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because, in both cases, sin results in expulsion and suffering. But it also results in knowledge — specifically, in knowledge of what it means to be human. For Hester, the scarlet letter functions as ―her passport into regions where other women dared not tread,‖ leading her to ―speculate‖ about her society and herself more ―boldly‖ than anyone else in New England (a Hawthorne belief – only through sin can we understand good). As for Dimmesdale, the ―burden‖ of his sin gives him ―sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his heart vibrate[s] in unison with theirs.‖ His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy. Hester and Dimmesdale contemplate their own sinfulness on a daily basis and try to reconcile it with their lived experiences. The Puritan elders, on the other hand, insist on seeing earthly experience as merely an obstacle on the path to heaven. Thus, they view sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed. Their answer to Hester‘s sin is to ostracize her. Yet, Puritan society is stagnant, while Hester and Dimmesdale‘s experience shows that a state of sinfulness can lead to personal growth, sympathy, and understanding of others. Paradoxically, these qualities are shown to be incompatible with a state of purity. This is shown near the end when Hester wears gray, unlike the typical Puritan black and white. Determining if a person is good or evil is not easy, despite the absolute surety the Puritans apply to such a question. Hester committed adultery, yet has since live a life above reproach. Is she evil for having sinned or is she good for what she has become? It isn‘t so clearly defined, and the truth is probably closer to: she is both – as are we all. Likewise, this idea that goodness can come from sin is shown symbolically in how Hester embroiders her letter, how she dresses Pearl and in how the rose-bush grows next to the weeds and shrubs. |
Theme #3 – The Nature of Evil. The characters in the novel frequently debate the identity of the ―Black Man,‖ the embodiment of evil. Over the course of the novel, the ―Black Man‖ is associated with Dimmesdale, Chillingworth, and Mistress Hibbins, and little Pearl is thought by some to be the devil‘s child. The characters also try to root out the causes of evil: did Chillingworth‘s selfishness in marrying Hester force her to the ―evil‖ she committed in Dimmesdale‘s arms? Is Hester and Dimmesdale‘s deed responsible for Chillingworth‘s transformation into a malevolent being? This confusion over the nature and causes of evil reveals the problems with the Puritan conception of sin. The book argues that true evil arises from the close relationship between hate and love. As the narrator points out in the novel‘s concluding chapter, both emotions depend upon ―a high degree of intimacy and heart-knowledge; each renders one individual dependent . . . upon another.‖ Evil is not found in Hester and Dimmesdale‘s lovemaking, nor even in the cruel ignorance of the Puritan fathers. Evil, in its most poisonous form, is found in the carefully plotted and precisely aimed revenge of Chillingworth, whose love has been perverted. Perhaps Pearl is not entirely wrong when she thinks Dimmesdale is the ―Black Man,‖ because her father, too, has perverted his love. Dimmesdale, who should love Pearl, will not even publicly acknowledge her. His cruel denial of love to his own child may be seen as further perpetrating evil, and in fact constitutes the worst sin of all. Chillingworth may have mad of himself a devil, and is clearly the antagonist of the story, but Dimmsdale is the story‘s greatest sinner. Chillingworth also serves to inform us of the necessity for learning forgiveness and the dangers of sustaining anger, rage or hate – common human emotions that are costly to engage in and are ultimately self-destructive.
Theme #4 – Identity and Society. After Hester is publicly shamed and forced by the people of Boston to wear a badge of humiliation, her unwillingness to leave the town may seem puzzling. She is not physically imprisoned, and leaving the Massachusetts Bay Colony would allow her to remove the scarlet letter and resume a normal life. Likewise, after Dimmsdale and Chillingworth‘s deaths, Hester leaves with Pearl for several years, only to return and take back her cottage, lifestyle and the scarlet letter. Surprisingly, Hester reacts with dismay when Chillingworth tells her that the town fathers are considering letting her remove the letter. Hester‘s behavior is premised on her desire to determine her own identity rather than to allow others to determine it for her. To her, running away or removing the letter would be an acknowledgment of society‘s power over her: she would be admitting that the letter is a mark of shame and something from which she desires to escape. Instead, Hester stays, accepts her sin and penance, which refigures the scarlet letter as a symbol of her own experiences and character. Her past sin is a part of who she is; to pretend that it never happened would mean denying a part of herself. Thus, Hester very determinedly integrates her sin into her life. Dimmesdale also struggles against a socially determined identity. As the community‘s minister, he is more symbol than human being. Except for Chillingworth, those around the minister willfully ignore his obvious anguish, misinterpreting it as holiness. Unfortunately, Dimmesdale never fully recognizes the truth of what Hester has learned: that individuality and strength are gained by quiet self-assertion and by a reconfiguration, not a rejection, of one‘s assigned identity. |
Main charactersHester Prynne, the wearer of the Scarlet Letter
Pearl, Hester’s illegitimate daughter Roger Chillingworth, Hester’s husband in disguise who seeks revenge for his wife's transgressions Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale, father of Hester's child Governor Bellingham, a wealthy, elderly gentleman Mistress Hibbins, Bellingham's widowed sister, who is a witch Reverend Mr. John Wilson, Boston’s elder clergyman who advocates harsh punishment for "sinners" The Narrator, an unnamed surveyor at the Salem Custom House who relates the story 200 years later Topics to Consider: Characterization of Hester, Roger, Pearl or Dimmesdale; solitude; the individual vs. society; truth vs. deception; Puritanism; guilt, penitence and redemption; 17th Century medicine; irony; and symbolism. A Note on HistoryA religious group which migrated from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in New England in the early 1600s, the Puritans believed in a "pure" interpretation of the Bible which did not include some fo the traditional practices of the Church of England. Although the Church did not officially control the State in Puritan settlements, religion and government were closely intertwined. The ministers counseled the magistrates in all affairs concerning the settlement and its citizens. The Puritans had strict rules against the theatre, religious music, sensuous poetry, and frivolous dress.
Massachusetts around the 1640's
Boston was founded in 1630, when a great number of Puritans moved to what would be Massachusetts. Governor Winthrop was one of them. However, four years later it was discovered that Massachusetts' charter was missing and that Winthrop had taken it with him when he left England. The General Court of Massachusetts looked at the charter and decided to use the processes (such as yearly elections) described in it rather than continue with the ways they had created when they had been unable to see the charter. As the Puritans became stronger in Massachusetts, they also grew in the General Court. In 1635, it announced a fine for anyone who did not go to church every week. A year later, churches required potential members to present a “conversion narrative,” or stirring description of how and why they had decided to join the Puritan church. This meant that those who were unable or unwilling to provide such a narrative could not join the church. Because membership in the church was a requirement to be able to vote, this effectively limited voters to those who would agree with the Puritans, further strengthening their hold on the government. At around the same time, Anne Hutchinson was seen as a threat to the government because of her ideas, including equality of all people, and the fact that she led people in Bible studies in her home. Because both men and women met in her home, the judges declared that the meetings were “lewd,” and she was exiled from the colony on November 17. The church and the government were so closely interconnected that a threat to one was immediately seen as a threat to the other. In a move to cut the powers of the Puritans, however, in 1644 the General Court became "bicameral," or made up of two separate legislative branches. Because of this, a single Puritan or small group of Puritans could not take total control of the court. This was the beginning of further laws to limit the power of the Puritans, and their power diminished. 1850's Colonial America The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850 by Nathaniel Hawthorne; he began it in 1849 after he left the Custom House. The movement of the day was something called Transcendentalism. Transcendentalism was a movement that emphasized the idea that divinity can be found in all places, in all forms. There are many examples of this idea throughout the Scarlet Letter, such as Hester's portrayal as good, even though she is a sinner. By the 1850’s, many of the social “norms” of the 17th Century were long gone. For example, the predominant religion was no longer the strict Puritanical Religion of the 17th Century, but a more open Christianity, much closer to what we now consider modern Christianity. During this time period the Women's Suffrage movement began to receive more notice. This is crucial in understanding the importance of how someone in this era would view a Puritanical society that oppressed the rights of women. People of this time looked down on that type of behavior and gained respect for the oppressed, the women of the novel. |
SymbolsThe Scarlet Letter – The scarlet letter is meant to be a symbol of shame, but instead it becomes a powerful symbol of identity to Hester. The letter‘s meaning shifts as time passes. Originally intended to mark Hester as an adulterer, the ―A‖ eventually comes to stand for ―Able.‖ Finally, it becomes indeterminate: the Native Americans who come to watch the Election Day pageant think it marks her as a person of importance and status. Like Pearl, the letter functions as a physical reminder of Hester‘s affair with Dimmesdale. But, compared with a human child, the letter seems insignificant, and thus helps to point out the ultimate meaninglessness of the community‘s system of judgment and punishment. The child has been sent from God, or at least from Nature, but the letter is merely a human contrivance.
The Rosebush (next to the prison door) – The narrator chooses to begin his story with the image of the rosebush beside the prison door. The narrator attributes two symbolic links to the rose-bush. First he states: ―in token that the deep heart of Nature could pity and be kind to him.‖ In other words, the rose-bush symbolizes God‘s or Nature‘s pity and the possibility of redemption. At the end of the chapter the narrator states: ―It may serve, let us hope, to symbolize some sweet moral blossom that may be found along the track, or relieve the darkening close of a tale of human frailty and sorrow.‖ The rose-bush becomes an indicator of the ‗moral‘ the reader should learn. It reappears again in chapter VII, when Pearl asks to be given a rose and Hester refuses her request. The rose is a perfect symbol for hope. While a rose is beautiful, it also has thorns. To hold the flower we must be willing to tolerate pain – just as we must be willing to face pain to find redemption. The Prison Door – The prison door itself symbolizes Puritan society: it is heavy and foreboding (stubborn and rigid) and, more importantly, closed at the beginning of the play. Moreover, the prison door separates the rose-bush and the weeds and brambles. This can be taken to represent the black-and-white view of the Puritans, a person is either good or bad, but cannot be both – a rigid and unforgiving mindset. Pearl – Although Pearl is a complex character, her primary function within the novel is as a symbol. Pearl is a sort of living version of her mother‘s scarlet letter. She is the physical consequence of sexual sin and the indicator of a transgression. Yet, even as a reminder of Hester‘s ―sin,‖ Pearl is more than a mere punishment to her mother: she is also a blessing. She represents not only ―sin‖ but also the vital spirit and passion that engendered that sin. Thus, Pearl‘s existence gives her mother reason to live, bolstering her spirits when she is tempted to give up. It is only after Dimmesdale is revealed to be Pearl‘s father that Pearl can become fully ―human.‖ Until then, she functions in a symbolic capacity as the reminder of an unsolved mystery (the ‗moral blossom‘ of the story). Pearl also comes to take on the symbolism of the rose-bush. She is compared to the rose by both Rev. Wilson and herself in chapter VIII. At that point, she functions as a dual symbol. The Meteor – As Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold with Hester and Pearl in Chapter XII, a meteor traces out an ―A‖ in the night sky. To Dimmesdale, the meteor implies that he should wear a mark of shame just as Hester does. The meteor is interpreted differently by the rest of the community, which thinks that it stands for ―Angel‖ and marks Governor Winthrop‘s entry into heaven. Puritans commonly looked to symbols to confirm divine sentiments. In this narrative, however, symbols are taken to mean what the beholder wants them to mean (like the scarlet letter itself). Sunshine – Beginning in chapter VII, sunshine becomes a symbol for happiness/hope/God‘s grace. Pearl asks to be given sunshine to play with and is denied. Later, while in the forest, waiting for Dimmesdale, Pearl says that the sunshine doesn‘t like Hester because of her scarlet letter. Again, chapter XVIII is titled: A Flood of Sunshine. Sunshine represents the redemption and happiness long denied both Hester and Dimmesdale, but now that they have pledged themselves to each other, they have a moment of happiness. When Dimmesdale confesses his sin on the scaffold, the narrator states that he does so in the sun. This lets the reader know that redemption has been gained (seen also in Pearl‘s acceptance of him). Water – Water, such as the brook in the forest or Pearl‘s tears in the end, serve as a symbol of cleansing. In the forest it states that the brook separates Pearl from Dimmsdale and Hester – who at the time are considering running from their sins. When Hester casts off her scarlet letter, it never makes it into the water, but lands upon its banks, an indication that she has not yet been cleansed of sin. In the end, when Pearl‘s tears fall on Dimmsdale‘s cheek, it cleanses him of his sin and allows him to receive God‘s grace. ChristianityThe Scarlet Letter is chock-full of biblical allusions. To fully understand the novel, it is important to have a basic understanding of Christianity and Old and New Testament literature. Here's a good place to start:
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Motifs
Civilization vs. Wilderness – In The Scarlet Letter, the town and the surrounding forest represent opposing behavioral systems. The town represents civilization, a rule-bound space where everything one does is on display and where transgressions are quickly punished. The forest, on the other hand, is a space of natural rather than human authority. In the forest, society‘s rules do not apply, and alternate identities can be assumed. While this allows for misbehavior— Mistress Hibbins‘s midnight rides, for example—it also permits greater honesty and an escape from the repression of Boston (while a sin, the affair was one of love). When Hester and Dimmesdale meet in the woods, for a few moments, they become happy young lovers once again. Hester‘s cottage, which, significantly, is located on the outskirts of town and at the edge of the forest, embodies both orders. It is her place of exile, which ties it to the authoritarian town, but because it lies apart from the settlement, it is a place where she can create for herself a life of relative peace. In addition, Pearl is linked directly with Nature at several points within the story. Hawthorne leaves the direct meaning of Nature somewhat ambiguous. It can be seen as a place where rules are abandoned and sin is possible – the rule of the devil – as Puritans saw it, or it could be seen as the realm of God and man‘s corrupt laws have no sway (sin occurs where there are people). This is mirrored in how Pearl is viewed: is she a product of sin and possessed by the devil, or is she a gift from God despite sin? Pearl is also reflected in the water by the seashore and compared with the brook in the forest. Water represents rebirth and cleansing, as does Pearl, as shown in her tears at the end which wash away Hester‘s and Dimmesdale‘s sin and releases Pearl from her role as a symbol.
Night vs. Day – By emphasizing the alternation between sunlight and darkness, the novel organizes the plot‘s events into two categories: those which are socially acceptable, and those which must take place covertly. Daylight exposes an individual‘s activities and makes him or her vulnerable to punishment. Night, on the other hand, conceals and enables activities that would not be possible or tolerated during the day — for instance, Dimmesdale‘s encounter with Hester and Pearl on the scaffold. These notions of visibility versus concealment are linked to two of the book‘s larger themes — the themes of inner versus socially assigned identity and of outer appearances versus internal states. Night is the time when inner natures can manifest themselves. During the day, interiority is once again hidden from public view, and secrets remain secrets.
Evocative Names – The names in this novel often seem to beg to be interpreted allegorically. Chillingworth is cold and inhuman and thus brings a ―chill‖ to Hester‘s and Dimmesdale‘s lives. ―Prynne‖ rhymes with ―sin,‖ while ―Dimmesdale‖ suggests ―dimness‖— weakness, indeterminacy, lack of insight, and lack of will, all of which characterize the young minister. The name ―Pearl‖ evokes a biblical allegorical device — the ―pearl of great price‖ that is salvation. A pearl is also a hidden gem of great worth. Pearl‘s character works in much the same way.
Gender Roles – As is typical with Hawthorne, he manipulate the roles of men and women, more specifically, he addresses the perceived roles of men and women. As in his short stories, here to we find that woman (Hester) offers the man (Dimmsdale) a chance at salvation, which he refuses, leading to his misery (just as Giovanni refuses Beatrice‘s love and Aylmer refuses Georgiana‘s). Hester is shown as strong while Dimmsdale is shown as weak. As a result of her isolation, Hester comes to recognize the truth about being a woman in her society: they were not equal. This provides Hester her goal in life after she is forgiven for her sin, she becomes an agent for social change.
Night vs. Day – By emphasizing the alternation between sunlight and darkness, the novel organizes the plot‘s events into two categories: those which are socially acceptable, and those which must take place covertly. Daylight exposes an individual‘s activities and makes him or her vulnerable to punishment. Night, on the other hand, conceals and enables activities that would not be possible or tolerated during the day — for instance, Dimmesdale‘s encounter with Hester and Pearl on the scaffold. These notions of visibility versus concealment are linked to two of the book‘s larger themes — the themes of inner versus socially assigned identity and of outer appearances versus internal states. Night is the time when inner natures can manifest themselves. During the day, interiority is once again hidden from public view, and secrets remain secrets.
Evocative Names – The names in this novel often seem to beg to be interpreted allegorically. Chillingworth is cold and inhuman and thus brings a ―chill‖ to Hester‘s and Dimmesdale‘s lives. ―Prynne‖ rhymes with ―sin,‖ while ―Dimmesdale‖ suggests ―dimness‖— weakness, indeterminacy, lack of insight, and lack of will, all of which characterize the young minister. The name ―Pearl‖ evokes a biblical allegorical device — the ―pearl of great price‖ that is salvation. A pearl is also a hidden gem of great worth. Pearl‘s character works in much the same way.
Gender Roles – As is typical with Hawthorne, he manipulate the roles of men and women, more specifically, he addresses the perceived roles of men and women. As in his short stories, here to we find that woman (Hester) offers the man (Dimmsdale) a chance at salvation, which he refuses, leading to his misery (just as Giovanni refuses Beatrice‘s love and Aylmer refuses Georgiana‘s). Hester is shown as strong while Dimmsdale is shown as weak. As a result of her isolation, Hester comes to recognize the truth about being a woman in her society: they were not equal. This provides Hester her goal in life after she is forgiven for her sin, she becomes an agent for social change.
Sources:
The Scarlet Letter Teacher's Guide by Elizabeth Poe, Ph.D.
“Anne Hutchinson.” Travel And History. Online Highways. 12 Oct. 2009 < http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h577.html>.
Colonial Era Timeline. In Jaycox, Faith. The Colonial Era, An Eyewitness History. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2002. American History Online. Facts On File, Inc. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.fofweb.com/NuHistory/>.
Answers.com Contributors. "The Scarlet Letter (Historical Context)." Answers.com. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. Editors. “SparkNote on The Scarlet Letter.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC. 2003. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
Wikipedia contributors. "Transcendentalism." Wikipedia. 13 Oct. 2009. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentalism#Influence_on_other_movements>.
http://www.virtualsalt.com/gothic.htm
The Scarlet Letter Teacher's Guide by Elizabeth Poe, Ph.D.
“Anne Hutchinson.” Travel And History. Online Highways. 12 Oct. 2009 < http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h577.html>.
Colonial Era Timeline. In Jaycox, Faith. The Colonial Era, An Eyewitness History. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2002. American History Online. Facts On File, Inc. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.fofweb.com/NuHistory/>.
Answers.com Contributors. "The Scarlet Letter (Historical Context)." Answers.com. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. Editors. “SparkNote on The Scarlet Letter.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC. 2003. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
Wikipedia contributors. "Transcendentalism." Wikipedia. 13 Oct. 2009. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentalism#Influence_on_other_movements>.
http://www.virtualsalt.com/gothic.htm